Enzyme Catalysis Essay

Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts to regulate metabolism by selectively speeding up chemical reactions in the cell without being consumed during the process. During the catalytic action, the enzyme binds to the substrate – the reactant enzyme acts on – and forms an enzyme-substrate complex to convert the substrate into the product. Each type of enzyme combines with its specific substrate, which is recognized by the shape. In the enzymatic reaction, the initial rate of activity is constant regardless of concentration because the number of substrate molecules is so large compared to the number of enzyme molecules working on them. When graphed, the constant rate would be shown as a line, and the slope of this linear portion is the rate of reaction. As time passes, the rate of reaction slowly levels with less concentration of the substrate. This point where the rate starts to level is called the Kmax, in which the peak efficiency of enzymes is reached. In order to start the reaction, reactants require an initial supply of energy called activation energy. The enzymes work by reducing the amount of free energy that must be absorbed so that less required energy leads to faster rate of reaction. The rate of catalytic reactions is affected by the changes in temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, and substrate concentration. Each enzyme has an optimal temperature at which it is most active; the rate of reaction increases with increasing temperature up to the optimal level, but drops sharply above that temperature. Most enzymes have their optimal pH value that range from 6 to 8 with exceptions, and they may denature in unfavorable pH levels. An increase in enzyme concentration will increase the reaction rate when all the active sites are full, and an increase in substrate concentration will increase the rate when the active sites are not completely full. The enzyme used in this lab is catalase, a common catalyst found in nearly all living organisms. Catalse is a tetramer of 4 polypeptide chains, each consisting of more than 500 amino acids. Its optimum pH is approximately 7, and optimum temperature is about 37 Â °C. The primary catalytic reaction of catalase decomposes hydrogen peroxide to form water and oxygen as shown by the equation: 2 H2O2 > 2 H2O + O2 . Within cells, the function of catalase is to prevent damage by the toxic levels of hydrogen peroxide by rapidly converting them to less dangerous substances. In this lab, we will show how catalase from 2 different sources (pure and potato extract) affects the rate of reaction by using titration to measure and calculating the decomposition rate of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to water and oxygen gas with enzyme catalysis. Part II – Material and Methods In Part 2A, I tested for catalase activity by using the seriological pipette to transfer 10mL of H2O2 into a beaker. The serological pipette was utilized in all transfer of substances in this lab because of its high quality and accuracy in measurement, especially with delicate control of volume and graduations that extend all the way to the top. Then, I used another serological pipette to add 1mL of catalase in the beaker. After observation, I analyzed and recorded the results. The above procedure was repeated with the boiled catalase solution using another beaker and serological pipette. I analyzed and recorded the results after examination. In Part 2B, I established the baseline to determine the amount of H2O2 present in the nominal solution without adding the enzyme. I used serological pipettes (for the same reason mentioned above) to transfer 10mL of H2O2 in a beaker previously labeled as baseline and 1mL of distilled H2O into the same beaker after that. Next, I added 10mL of 1. 0M H2SO4 into the beaker and mixed the solution by gently swirling the beaker. The sulfuric acid was used to lower the pH and thereby stopping the catalytic activity. Using the serological pipette, I removed 5mL of the mixture into a different beaker to assay for the H2O2 amount through titration. This was done particularly through the titration technique because it can determine the concentration of a reactant – in this case, remaining amount of H2O2 – with volume measurements. After recording the initial burette reading, I placed the assay beaker underneath a burette containing KMnO4 and gradually added the titrant with controlled drops while gently swirling the beaker until the color of the mixture turned permanently pink or brown. Then, I recorded the final burette reading. The potassium permanganate was specifically used because its excess amount will cause the solution to change color, and the amount used to change the color is proportional to amount of remaining H2O2. In Part 2D, I measured the rate of H2O2 decomposition with enzyme catalysis in 5 different time intervals of 10, 30, 60, 120, and 180 seconds. After labeling 5 beakers with each time interval, I transferred 10mL of H2O2 to each beaker with the serological pipette (for the same reason mentioned in Part 2A). For the 10 second time interval, I added 1mL of catalase extract and swirled the beaker for 10 seconds. Next, I added 10mL of H2SO4 to stop the reaction. I repeated the above procedure 4 more times, varying the 10 second time interval to 30, 60, 120, 180 seconds. Then, using the serological pipette, I removed 5mL sample from each of the 5 beakers and found the amount of remaining H2O2 by titration with KMnO4. The reason and procedure for titration was identical to those in Part 2B. Part IV – Discussion In Part 2A, the enzyme activities of catalase and boiled catalase were observed. According to the data, the bubbles began to form in the mixture when the catalase was poured into H2O2. The bubbles are the O2 that results from the breakdown of H2O2 as the catalase takes effect. In the case of boiled catalase, there were no bubbles, which points to the absence of oxygen. This absence shows that unlike previous catalase, boiled catalase had no effect on the rate of reaction. The data supports the background information provided in the Introduction. The boiling of the catalase will alter its temperature above its optimal level, and that explains the significantly decreased reaction in the boiled catalase mixture compared to the catalase mixture. In Part 2B, the data represents the amount of H2O2 used in the reaction without enzyme catalysis, hence establishing the baseline. The collected data of initial reading and final reading was used to calculate the baseline of 4. 7mL KMnO4, which is proportional to the amount of H2O2. The 4 groups combined data as a class and took the average of the 4 baselines by liminating the highest and lowest number and taking the average of remaining 2 numbers. The established baseline was 4. 4mL. In the Charts A1 through B2 of Part 2D, the collected data of initial reading and final reading was used to calculate the amount of KMnO4 by subtracting the initial from the final. Since the amount of KMnO4 is proportional to the amount of H2O2 remaining, it was used to calculate the amount of H2O2 used in the reaction by subtracting it from the baseline. The computed data and the time intervals were graphed into 2 scatter plots separated by the type of catalase (pure and potato extract) with the lines of best fit drawn. The trend that should have shown in all 4 graphs was a steady increase from zero in the beginning and a gradual leveling off into a horizontal line towards the end. However, the actual results did not exactly come out as expected. In Graph A1, the data of Group 1 did steadily increase in the beginning, but the amount in 120 seconds was off and the data of Group 3 started with a negative amount, which went up and down throughout the time intervals. In Graph B1, the data of Group 2 started with a steady increase and slightly declined towards the end although the graph started at a negative number. In the same graph, the data of Group 4 also started negative and declined further, but it increased rapidly in the time intervals of 30-120 seconds and slightly declined at the end. Out of all the groups, the data of Group 2 was the most closest to the expected and the data of Group 4 was the most skewed. Overall, most groups had a line of best fit that began with a steady line that gradually smoothed out into a curve after, which matched the expected graph. Generally, the rate was the highest in the beginning from 0 to 120 seconds because that was when the H2O2 and catalase were first combined and the substrate molecules outnumber the enzyme, allowing the enzyme to collide with substrates more frequently. The rate was lowest towards the end after 120 seconds because that is a while after the hydrogen peroxide began to be decomposed and there is less of the substrate to bind with the enzyme, which means slower rate of reaction. This corresponds to the both graph’s line of best fit, which relatively supports the background information. The rate of enzyme activity on the reaction would decrease with lowered temperature since the lowered average kinetic energy of the molecules decrease the chances of the enzyme colliding and binding with the substrate. Also, the enzyme may be denatured with low enough temperature. The function of catalase is inhibited by sulfuric acid. The sulfuric acid removes the enzyme’s function as a catalyst by transfiguring the protein conformation, which is critical to the binding of the enzyme to its substrate because the specificity is entirely dependent on the structure. Part V – Error Analysis The data from Part 2D did not completely support the background information, which could be explained by errors that was made in the lab. One major error in the data was the negative amount of H2O2 used in the 10 second time interval with exception of Group 1. This may be the result of a human error made in the process of titration. A student may have had trouble controlling the amount of KMnO4 with the burette, unable to record the exact amount at which the color of the mixture changed and adding too much KMnO4. This would have resulted in larger amount of KMnO4 used, thus, leading to a smaller amount of H2O2 used in the solution, which could result in a negative number. Another major error was the up and down fluctuation in the graph drawn from the data of Group 3 and Group 4. This could be due to any measurement error made during the lab, such as the measurement for the sample used in the assay. The directions called for 5mL of the mixture to be titrated; however, students may have measured wrong or mistaken the amount to more or less than 5mL. The assay of more than 5mL would result in a smaller amount of H2O2 used and the assay of less than 5mL would result in a larger amount of H2O2 used, which would account for the incorrect fluctuation of the graphs. Part VI – Conclusions In this lab, I conclude the following: Part 2A: ?Catalase reacts with H2O2 and produced H2O and O2 while boiled catalase does not engage with the substrate. This is shown by the formation of bubbles in the catalase mixture and the absence of bubbles, which indicates absence of oxygen, in the boiled catalase mixture. The function of catalase is affected by temperature because the boiling of the catalase denatured its catalytic ability, thus leading to absence of bubbles in the boiled catalase mixture. Part 2B: ?The amount of H2O2 remaining in the catalyzed reaction is generally less than that in the established baseline due to faster rate in the decomposition. In the data of Group 1, the amount of KmnO4 (proportional to the remaining amount of H 2O2) is 4. 4mL, 4. 2mL, 3. 9mL, 4. 2mL, and 3. 9mL over different time intervals. They are less than or equal to the baseline of 4. 4mL. Part 2D: ?The rate of catalytic reaction changes over time; the rate is constant in the beginning and gradually decreases towards the end, leveling off into a curve from a line. This is best illustrated in the best fit line of Group 2 data in Graph B1. ?The rate is highest when the reaction begins and becomes lower as time passes. The slope of the linear portion of all graphs in the data is greater than the slope of the gradually curving graph with increasing time interval.

Who was a better leader, Joseph Smith or Brigham Young?

Joseph Smith was an important religious figure who founded Mormonism. He was faithful, driven, and a strong speaker, but was easily tempered. Joseph Smith had his great contributions and failures, and after his death the new Mormon leader became Brigham Young, who also made great contributions to the Mormon movement, but just as Joseph Smith he had his failures. Joseph Smith was born in 1805. While Smith was growing up, there was a great religious revival taking place in New York State. When he was fourteen, Smith was finding this very confusing, and began to pray for guidance. Smith then claimed that a pillar of light appeared before him, and told him not to join any religious sects. Later as he was growing up, Smith experienced a vision from the angel Moroni, who told him that God had work for him to accomplish. The angel told Smith that a book written upon gold plates was deposited. The book gave accounts of former inhabitants of this continent and their source. The angel then told Smith where to find the book, and he dug it up on a hillside near Manchester. The book gave a different story from the Bible. According to the book, lost Israeli tribes migrated to America before the birth of Christ. There they fought each other until Christ was born and established his Church. Then the fighting began again, and one of the survivors, Mormon, wrote down records of his people on the plates. The person who found these plates was to restore the Church of Christ in America. Smith wouldn't let anyone check the plates to check his honesty, and said he had returned them to the hillside. Smith then published a translation of the plates in 1830. Smith started with just five followers, but his speaking and persuasions kills were very strong, and by the end of 1830 he had several hundred followers. However they were very unpopular in New York State because people claimed that Smith was only trying to make money and his book was offensive. His house was attacked and followers were shot in the streets. Smith then prayed for guidance, he took his followers Kirtland, Ohio. There he planned to set up a City of God. In Kirtland, the Mormon movement flourished greatly, reaching a thousand followers by 1831. They even founded colonies in Missouri. They worked very hard and soon had a store, bank, printing press and a mill. They soon outnumbered the non-Mormons. However their success increased the envy and hatred of the others. Very unfortunately for the Mormons, in 1837 there was a economic crisis, making many banks collapse. Many non-Mormons had put their savings into the Mormon bank, and when it collapsed, they were chased out of Kirtland. The Mormons and their leader, Joseph Smith, then went to the colonies they had set up in Missouri, but this didn't increase their popularity. Attempts were made to stop them from voting, and the local settlers destroyed property. When the government sent in troops to make order, the Mormons were blamed for everything, put in prison, and condemned to death. Then rumours began to go around that they were freeing slaves and upsetting Indians, making the government declare them as public enemies. In 1838 the Mormons were released from prison, they went to a very small town of Commerce in Illinois, which Smith renamed Nauvoo. The Mormons were allowed to develop it into and independent city state. They prospered cooperatively, and in 1844 Nauvoo was the biggest city in Illinois, dominated by the giant temple. The Mormons, now at 35,000 were trying to create an ideal society with no poor, homeless, smoking or drinking. Many of the poor converted, promised salvation. The Mormons were finally settled. However this was ruined by Smith's serious mistakes. He said that the idea of polygamy was right, leading to many Mormons calling him false, and a lot of criticism in the newspapers. This angered Smith and he destroyed the presses of the newspaper. His critics then asked for him to be arrested, and he was put into jail in Carthage. Once the news about polygamy spread to the non-Mormons, they were enrages. They shot Smith in the prison, and Mormons were hunted down by mobs. After the death of Joseph Smith, the new leader of the Mormons became Brigham Young. He decided that the Mormons would leave to the Great Salt Lake in 1846. Young was very organized and down-to earth, and very determined. He also married eight of Smith's former wives, so he was very considerate. Preparations took all winter, and then the Mormons finally began their journey. They passed many dangers even though the journey was well organized, such as the prairie weather and plague that killed hundreds of people. On their way to the Great Salt Lake, they met Jim Bridger, a mountain man who warned them that it would be too cold for growing corn, but was ignored. They also passed Sam Brannan, a Mormon who told them to go to California. Young replied that he is looking for a desolate place. They climbed on upwards, and by July they reached the Great Salt Lake. Young had total control over his community; they trusted and believed in him, and so although he had many challenges to overcome, he knew he'd be able to build a Mormon City. Young decided that there would be no private ownership of land or water, and land would be assigned to people according to their needs by the church. Everything was going well, but in 1848 the US defeated Mexico in war and gained territories including part of the Great Salt Lake. Young decided to form a Mormon state called Deseret, but the US government refused and a compromise was made and the territory of Utah was created, and Young was governor. Young organized and developed Utah very well, building new towns and making farming and wheat production a success. He was sure that the Mormons would be self-sufficient. Young also sent out missionaries to convert people, and got an amazing result. There was an immigration fund set up to help converts pay for their passage to Salt Lake and organize it. However the Mormons weren't very self-sufficient and still didn't have enough workers or money for industrial development. Education wasn't much of an achievement either. Tension also grew between the Mormons and the outsiders when converts began to move to Utah. Many bad rumours spread about the Mormons. It was suspicious to the outsiders that the Mormons had converted some of the Indians, and so rumours spread that they were planning to kill all gentiles together. The US government decided to emphasize their authority, and in 1857 an army of 2500 men was sent out to march against the Mormons, who fled to Salt Lake City. This worked very well and the army ended up not reaching Salt Lake City. Then the Mountain Meadow Massacre took place. As 140 emigrants were heading for California, they passed Utah. They abused Indian converts and insulted the Mormons. This provoked the Indians to attack them. The Indians and the Mormons killed all the emigrants to stop the news from spreading out. The Mormons then blamed everything on the Indians. But soon newspapers spread the story, begging for the Mormons to be punished. The US government sent troops out again, causing the Mormon families to flee. But when the news reached the East, the Mormons were suddenly turned into victims. In 1858 the US government offered them a full forgiveness if they accepted the US authority. They agreed, a governor was appointed, and they were allowed to develop in peace. Their true leader was still Brigham Young. However polygamy was still a disagreement. When Utah applied to become a state, the US offered to let them become a state if they accepted the ban of polygamy. They agreed, and Utah was made a state in 1896. Both of the men faced challenges, found solutions, and left a positive impact on the Mormon movement. Joseph Smith was very driven and determined and wouldn't accept defeat. He was a great public speaker with a lot of charisma, and thereby converted many people into Mormonism. He was a business man and established banks. Smith was very intelligent because he created a thriving business and a new religion. He was also a great leader before he was jailed. He was also clever to establish colonies in Missouri, to which the Mormons fled out of Kirtland. Brigham Young managed to leave a very positive impact on the Mormon movement as well. He was a great leader, and his people believed in him and trusted him. He was very organized and more down to earth than Smith. He managed to organize the long and difficult journey to the Great Salt Lake. When they faced cold weather in the winter, he arranged the winter quarters where they stayed. He also had total control over his community and established a thriving city in the Great Salt Lake. He developed a great law of land being given to people according to their needs. He also negotiated well with the US government, eventually receiving the land of Utah. His missionaries to convert people were a big success, and he built new towns in Utah, as well as making faming and wheat-production a success. He also established a great immigration fund for immigrant converts. He made a right and down-to earth decision when he accepted anti-polygamy, finally making Utah a State. He was also very considerate; he had the answers to the Mormons' problems, carried them through after the death of smith, and married all of Smith's wives. He left a long-time impact, and after his death Salt Lake City was prosperous, the power of the Church was finally established through his system of government, and many of his foundations still remain today. Both of the Mormon leaders also had failures. Joseph Smith's strong temper got him into jail twice. He was also too ambitious, and his ideas of polygamy ruined the Mormons' peace in the land they were finally free in. When his banks collapsed, this added tension to the Mormons' relationship with the outside world even more, and made them seem unreliable and too ambitious. By the time he presented his ideas about polygamy, his people didn't believe in him anymore because he had gotten them into jail, and so his leadership image was ruined. Brigham Young had failures as well. Although his planning for the Great Salt Lake journey was good, they still faced challenges and people died on the way. He also didn't manage to establish a law to allow polygamy. They also weren't as self-sufficient as he planned, and they lost money when their iron, pottery and textile attempts didn't succeed. They also didn't achieve much in the education area. The emigrants also complained of overcharging, and relations between Mormons and the outsiders remained difficult. Overall, Brigham Young definitely left a bigger positive impact on the Mormon movement. He was much more down-to-earth than Smith, and his people remained believing in him until his death. Even when Utah was appointed a new governor, he still remained their spiritual leader. Young managed to make Utah a state where Mormons continued to live after his death. Many of his foundations still remain today. The power of the Church was firmly established through his system of government, and Salt Lake City was prosperous after his death. Many Mormons remain in the world today. Young didn't get the Mormons into jail or disappoint them like Smith did, and carried them through his death. Smith had minimal achievements compared to Young, and died in shame and disapproval unlike Young, who left a great impact after his death.

American Gangster Film Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

American Gangster Film - Essay Example The gangster genre is a series of cycles, where each draws and develops from its forerunners, but at the same time reflecting the characteristic concerns and feature of its time. The classical genre expression in the 1930s The classical expression of the genre film is based on the rise and fall of the criminal, often involving the simple beginnings from early youth to maturity at the peak of their criminal careers, seemingly and finally ending tragically. The classical expression of the early thirties was viewed by the audience as a clear response to the depression and the expanded misery over the public policy value and government institutions, law and finance (Shadoian 57). This can help describe the key actors such as Rico in Little Caesar and Tony in Scarface, who were powerful figures who thrived in the face of executive opposition, through their own efforts. After the disagreement over Scarface, there existed a short suspension of gangster films, even though some of the forces behind the classical cycle had disappeared with the elimination of the Volstead Act of 1933. However, by the mid 1930s, a new range of post-abolition, post-production Code gangster films developed, looking at similar themes and involving most of the previous actors, though shifting the focus away from the gangsters and instead focusing on the implementers. The Depression pessism led to the optimism of the New Deal and the gangster genre sought to reassert the legality of executive authority through a couple of films. Nonetheless, classic cycle could still offer its audience with similar vicarious experience of corruption and heroic violence as the forerunners, though the violence was continued more or less legally. Some of the films that set the pace for this phase of genre development were the Little Caesar of 1930, the Public Enemy of 1931, and Scarface of 1932 (Munby 19). These gangsters are often immigrants who are victims of circumstance and always depicted as egotistical mania cs. In the 1930s, the films were arguably developed to initiate a level of security and stability for the audience in the throes of Depression. The film noir phase of the film genre development This is a phase experienced in the 1940s and 1950s, looking at the darker features of modernity, and often exploring the impacts of a criminal act. Gangster films within the film noir phase may have portrayed a shared iconography with the forerunner of the 1930s, though they brought a distinctive attitude and a darker tone than any other did. After the war, films gave an obvious reflection of a pessimistic and darkening mood, among the challenges to â€Å"traditional† values that service men experienced. Even though this phase of genre development has been conceived as aesthetically deviant and experimental, portraying little links to what happened before, noir gangster films took over from where pre-war crime movies had left. Viewers received them as an awkward reminder of issues whos e solution had been put off by the quest to prosecute the war. Examples of such films are the High Sierra of 1940 and White Heat of 1949 (Booker 105). Filmmakers in 1940s and 50s were not really making the noir film, but creating pictures for masses of viewers which are still hugely entertaining. Films in the classical genre were subversive and queried the facade of daily lives in

Macroeconomics Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Macroeconomics - Term Paper Example The housing market like any other market follows the basic supply and demand laws. Demand means the amount of good consumers demand at a certain price. While supple means the amount of goods the suppliers/ produces are willing to supply at a certain price. Generally when there is a price rise, demand falls and where as supply increases when there is higher price (supply and demand, 2008). But incase of the US housing market there was almost abnormal rise in the prices and then a sudden fall ushered in from 2006 onwards. This was preceded by a stable housing price environment in most parts of the 1990s while an increasing trend was witnessed towards the end of the 1990s. Housing prices rose by a whopping 87% during the period January 2002 to June 2006. While the sudden decline started in 2006 and gathered enormous proportions in the years 2007, 2008 and is still continuing. Housing prices were down by roughly 25% in 2008 third financial quarter in comparison to the peak levels of 2006 . During the middle part of the 1990s governmental regulations in relation to lending norms were relaxed drastically and ensuing regulations followed which made it mandatory for housing loan institution like Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to increase their share of US mortgages belonging to middle as well as low income families by significant levels. During the era 1999 US federal rules also made it sure that these two institutions which hold a major portion of the US mortgages accepted greater amount of loans but with minimal and in many cases, absolutely no down payment. Almost a similar kind of regulation was passed in the year 1995 in context f bank's landings through which they were made to lend heavily to minority sections of the population in the vicinity of the banks in the process prudent lending mechanisms and evaluation of credit worthiness were overlooked. This was the 'Community Reinvestment Act'. Testimony to the afore mentioned fact Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac's overall shar e of mortgages under their holding went up to 45% in the year 2001 from only 25% in the year 1990. This fact is shown in Fig.2. It is also evident from the figure that how these two institution's share of the outstanding mortgages went up continuously throughout the 1990s and also almost through the 2000s. Fig.2. Outstanding Mortgages and Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac's share of them. Source: Gwartney, et al. Interest rate manipulation During the period between 2002 and 2006 the US Fed ushered in an extended low interest rate phase. As a result of the ensuing low rate scenario there was a huge demand for the houses and consecutively the prices also soared in the sector. Fig.3. 1-Year Treasury Bill Rate & Fed Fund Rate Source: Gwartney, et al. Fig.3. shows that how the fed had kept the interest rate for

New York's decision to pay egg donors sparks debate by Ridgely Ochs Essay

New York's decision to pay egg donors sparks debate by Ridgely Ochs - Essay Example New York state decision to pay women who donate eggs for stem cells using public money is generating a lot of debate in ethicists and critics who believe it to be an inappropriate way to use tax dollars. However, scientists believe New York decision could make it a leader in the research that promises to cure serious diseases like diabetes and brings revenue and jobs to the state. Nevertheless, apart from ethicists, not all scientists approve the procedure of using tax payer dollars to finance an undertaking that some people find morally wrong and attracts poor women who remain vulnerable to exploitation. Ethicists feel that many people will be violated and feel morally complicit in doing something they oppose; hence, ethicists believe that the decision ought to have been deeply reflected across the state. However, the state decision is considered to benefit another person by saving a person’s life or even resulting in a child. Summary of â€Å"The facts on embryonic stem cel ls† by Jennifer Barrios Embryonic stem cells are retrieved from human embryos that are less than a week old and have the prospective of growing into muscle, nerve and different other forms of cells. Embryonic stem cells differ from Adult stem cells in that adult stem cells result from non-embryonic human tissue like the brain or bone marrow and are found in certain tissues within the human body. Some early researches indicated that adult stem cells could develop into other forms of tissue apart from the original tissue although their capacity is limited compared to embryonic stem cells... Summary of â€Å"Researchers find new way to produce stem cells† by Delthia Ricks A group of scientists produced one of a kind human stem cells that never destroys embryos where they come from and indicated that the stem cells are viable and hardy for researchers to begin using them immediately. The procedure of obtaining the stem cells involves plucking one cell from the embryo and then freezing it before being implanted in addition the procedure was regarded as a proof of principle. The procedure is similar to pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), a technique that allows one or two cells to be picked from early-stage embryos for gene screening. Picking a single cell from an embryo does not alter the development of the embryo moreover; this procedure is expected to be get permission from US FDA to stem test stem cells as treatments for disorders. In November USA and Japanese scientists showed a fresh way of obtaining embryonic stem cells that coaxed scientists to develop them from skin cells. The discovery made worldwide headline revealing how skin cells retain primordial slates called stem cells, which scientists believe can change to any form of cells thus they can be used to create fresh and healthy tissue following an injury or debilitating disease. Nevertheless, opponent of this fresh technique of obtaining embryonic stem state that they are not convinced that the technique passes the test of protecting human embryos. Although the techniques seems to have been successful on technical issues, ethical issues still remain on the issue of using and manipulating human embryonic stem cells. Summary of â€Å"Scientists stress importance of research with human embryos† by Delthia Ricks Although opponents of embryonic stem cells

Blackberrys Social Scope as a Business Tool Research Paper

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Comparison of Organizational Cultures of the United States versus Essay

Comparison of Organizational Cultures of the United States versus Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates - Essay Example Arguments in this paper flow from four cultural traits of effective organizations that include involvement, consistency, adaptability, and mission. The paper compares and contrasts the organizational cultures of the U.S and those of the Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates by applying elements such as collectivism versus individualism, femininity versus masculinity, orientation, and power distance. America organizational culture features a system of inclusive involvement whereby employees are rewarded for taking initiatives. The American system values accountability and empowerment. The American organization cultures stress the significance of accountability. The U.S. organizational culture provides a favorable environment for peak performance accompanied by extrinsic rewards. Aspects such as individual bonuses are tied to initiative and personal accountability. The organization culture of the U.S. establishes conditions for achieving operational objectives. U.S. organization culture stresses the importance of values such as communication, innovation, collaboration, and stability, which influences the employees’ roles and expectations. The organizational culture of U.S. also encourages innovation and risk taking. Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates, which comprise part of Arab World, exhibits unique values and beliefs as reflected on the organizations practices and systems development, implementation and management. The two countries are heavily dependent on foreign labor, especially in essential professional and skilled or technical fields. Expatriates in the countries are hired contractually; their jobs attract high extrinsic rewards. There is a strong inclination in both countries for an increased preference for managerial positions. Survey conducted in organizations in both countries highlights conflicting attitudes towards Western business models. However, most agree that they enhance organizational performance. Regulatory decisions within the

Laundering Control Law Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Laundering Control Law - Article Example For this reasons, officials in charge of seeing over the major operations completed by businessmen and other traders around the world have found definite ways to control the procedures to which financial assets are exchanged between parties involved. The money laundering control laws are basically established to create better chances for the financial resources to be distributed at least as evenly as possible towards the people really needed and are working hard for the gaining of such resources. It is through the establishment of this law that money is distributed to people in a rather considerable manner that everyone needing it actually is given proper consideration. In UK, financial solicitors are subjected to different investigative procedures before they could actually declare the money they hand out to be clean and free of any particular issue. However, because of the intelligent approach of those who have particular ill propositions on the part of earning money, the development of money laundering procedures have come into realization on the part of commercial progress. Through this, money taken from ill procedures is made clean and is thus utilized freely in the market as it is distributed from one handler to another. Under the UK common law, the establishment of money laundering as a pa... In the paragraphs that follow, an examination of the truths behind money laundering's actual cases shall be presented as to how they directly affect the modern UK society and how the said country's community faces the challenge of imbalanced distribution of wealth not only within their own nation abut around the globe. About Money Laundering As mentioned earlier, money laundering is a basic process of making money resourced out from illegal and immoral resources are made clean through hidden case declarations making it easier for the owner of the said amount of finance have a practical possibility of spending the money in the society in a free manner. Declaring where money came from is an important part of modern commerce. Why is this so' Money of course is known for being used as a universal trading asset. Hence, if the money came from an illegal source and has not been declared as one that appears to be the reality that it is, then the possibility of controlling crime is lost thus resulting to a more imbalanced process of distributing the wealth and finances that people around the community directly deserve to receive. Financial crimes such as tax evasion and false accounting declaration are only among the most rampant financial crimes existent in the society today. These crimes have been viewed as particular sources of business as well as community tensions as the wealth kept by those who are already having a great control of the economy are viewed as stolen money from the society who had been working hard for the said amount of finances. For this reason, there is a good push that makes money laundering control law the basic adjudications that financing

Strategic Human Resource Management Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Strategic Human Resource Management - Coursework Example Training is concerned with improving the current task force performance whereas development aims to build up and it increases competence level of employees for the better future performances. Q. 2 Hiring employees who need training is advantageous when the organisation need to maintain a particular knowledge and skills up to date for competitive purpose. Technology keeps on changing rapidly; thus it becomes beneficial to the company when they hire employees whom they need to train. This is vital because it will enable the business to create significant changes that will enable them to achieve a competitive advantage. However, it becomes advantageous to the company when they hire already trained employees because they already have significant work experience; thus this reduces costs of training, time and other resources of training unskilled employees. They also add knowledge to already existing organisation team and they are less costly to the company since training is costly and tim e consuming. Q. 3 The organization can determine in case its training is effective through employing effective evaluation criteria. Varied models have been developed in order to determine in case the training is effective; thus performance indicator is one of the models employed in determining the training effectiveness. Another criteria used is the dependent measure for operationalizing the effectiveness of training but there are other new approaches and models that have been proposed by researchers on evaluating the effectiveness of training (Arthur, Bennett, Edens and Bell, 2003). Kirkpatrick’s model is one of the new frameworks that attempt to reveal the effectiveness of training; thus this model takes into consideration four significant steps or criteria for determining the effectiveness of training. One of the steps is reaction criteria, which employs self report measures and another one is learning criteria, which measure the learning outcomes. Behavioral criteria also measure the actual work performance and it identifies the effect of t raining on actual performance. Lastly, results criteria and this determines in case the quality or productivity of the work has been improved. Q. 4 Behavioral methods are designed performance appraisal, which is based on rating the task performance of workforce depending on their behaviors. This is vital because it enables managers to determine the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of working performance for employees. Behavioral method judges the actions of employees by using a rating scale to evaluate or measure their particular behaviors. On the other hand, personnel comparison method is used for measuring and comparing each labor force with others in a certain group. Personnel comparison is considered an effective and reliable method of performance appraisal in situations where only employee need to be promoted; thus it is vital for ranking an employee against others in a group on diverse factors until they fi nd the best employee. Q. 5 The performance appraisal refers to the technique employed by HR managers to assess the task performance of a workforce. It is purpose is to assess the task of workforce in regard to particular standards. It is employed in measuring work performance of employees in order to determine their strength and weaknesses. It is imperative because it helps managers to offer efficient training programs or remunerate workforce according to the task

Allegory in Lord of the Flies Essay Example for Free

Allegory in Lord of the Flies Essay In William Golding’s Lord of the Flies, which is set during World War II, English school boys, escaping war in England, crash on a deserted tropical island. From the protected environment of boarding school, the boys are suddenly thrust into a situation where they must fend for themselves. In order to survive, the boys copy their country’s rule for a civilized life by electing a leader, Ralph. He promises order, discipline, and rules for the boys so that they form a small civilized society. This civilized society does not last. Struggling with Jack who wants to be the leader and the boys’ fears of the unknown, Ralph is unable to maintain control, and the boys fulfill Golding’s perspective that human nature is inherently negative as the boys become savages that brutally and viciously kill. Golding creates an allegory by using symbols to show his pessimistic view of human nature through the boys’ desire for civilization, their struggle against evil, and their descent into savagery. Golding develops the allegory using symbols of the boys’ desire for civilization. Leadership and reasoning are represented by the symbols of Ralph and the conch and Piggy and his glasses. Finding a conch on the beach, Ralph uses it to keep law and order or peace among the boys. â€Å"Ralph grasped the idea and hit the shell with air from his diaphragm. Immediately the thing sounded† (15). Blowing into the conch, Ralph assembles the boys for meetings. He uses the conch to promote fair play by passing it around so that each boy has the opportunity to speak freely and express himself. â€Å"I’ll give the conch to the next person to speak. He can hold it when he’s speaking† (39). Ralph represents the order that is necessary in a civilized society, and the conch is the means by which he establishes this order. In addition to establishing order, Ralph organizes the boys into separate groups like hunters, gatherers, and shelter makers to aid the survival of the group giving more evidence of his leadership abilities. Ralph delegates one responsibility to Jack making him in charge of the hunters. Although the boys would prefer to have fun and play games, they follow Ralph’s rules at first. This order is maintained until Ralph loses his leadership role to Jack. After providing, or bribing, the boys with juicy pig meat, Jack asks â€Å"’Who’ll join my tribe and have fun? ’† (211). This lure of enjoyment along with the promise of more food sways the boys to follow Jack. With the demise of Ralph’s leadership and under the leadership of Jack, the boys begin to turn towards savagery. From this point on, the change in the leadership brings with it the transformation of the boys from ordered society to savages. Through the downfall of Ralph’s leadership and the resulting descent into savagery, Golding is able to reveal how the dark side of human nature can prevail. Golding’s character Piggy portrays the voice of reasoning and logic and his glasses symbolize his wisdom. Ralph recognizes Piggy’s ability to think with clarity and soon depends upon him in his role as leader. Piggy’s idea to use the conch to assemble all the survivors leads to Ralph’s election as leader. Ralph uses Piggy’s ideas for building shelter and Piggy’s glasses to ignite the signal fire. â€Å"Ralph moved the lenses back and forth, this way and that, till a glossy white image of the declining sun lay on a piece of the rotten wood† (30). Golding shows his pessimistic view of human nature as Piggy, whose ideas and logical thoughts have been so important to the boys’ survival, becomes irrational. Once the voice of reason, Piggy refuses to accept his role in the death of Simon. The destruction and loss of his glasses destroys Piggy’s ability to see clearly and decreases his ability to influence the actions of the group. Upon an attack, Piggy, who once refused to believe in the beast, thinks Jack is the beast and cries out â€Å"’It’s come! ’ gasped Piggy. ‘It’s real! † (233). Piggy continues to believe the group of boys will respond to logic when he asks them if it is better to be like savages and kill or to have order and be rescued. The boys remain silent when Roger pushes a big rock on Piggy to kill him. â€Å"Piggy, saying nothing, with no time for even a grunt, traveled through the air sideways from the rock, turning over as he went† (255-256). With the death of Piggy, who was the icon of reasoning, Golding shows that the dark side of human nature triumphs over reasoning and rational thinking. Golding extends the allegory by exploring the boys’ struggle against evil with the beast symbolizing the boys’ fears of evil and Jack as the symbol of the lure of evil. At one of their first meetings, the boys discuss their predicament with optimism that they will soon be rescued, and until that time, they will enjoy the freedom of the island. One of the smallest boys is urged by his peers to come forward to speak and asks reluctantly what will be done about the beast. The others laugh at him until he describes the beast as a big, snakelike creature that comes in the dark wanting to eat him. Ralph tries to dismiss the boy’s ideas as merely a nightmare, but the crowd did not completely believe him. â€Å"The eyes that looked so intently at him were without humor† (44). This moment plants the seeds of fear in the boys’ hearts that will later unleash their inner savage. Ralph returns to the topic of the beast at another meeting in hopes of calming the worries that began with the littluns and spread throughout the group. At this meeting Jack takes the conch and attempts to convince the boys again that the beast is just in their imagination. â€Å"’The thing is – fear can’t hurt you any more than a dream’† (110). Even Piggy speaks up to say that there is nothing such as the beast to be afraid of in the forest until he has the realization: â€Å"’Unless we get frightened of people. ’† (113). Golding’s development of the boys’ fears using the beast shows the struggle of humans with their inner selves and the evil that lies within. Golding creates the character Jack as a catalyst for the allegory by his luring of the boys into the evilness of savagery. When Jack first attempts to kill a pig, he hesitates because he still belongs to the civilization he left when the plane crashed. The pause was only long enough for them to understand what an enormity the downward stroke would be† (35). At this point, Jack changes. He loses the sense of self that resists the lure of evil and begins his descent to his dark side. â€Å"He snatched his knife out of the sheath and slammed it into a tree trunk. Next time there would be no mercy† (35-36). Jack becomes obsessed with hunting and works to perfect his weapons and his stealth. Jack dons a mask that frees him from his self-consciousness and shame creating a new person ready to kill. Jack takes some boys with him and kills a pig. When they returned, all are chanting â€Å"’Kill the pig. Cut her throat. Spill her blood. ’† (90). Jack transforms the young boys from innocent children to violent killers. Golding uses Jack to lure the others to evil and awaken their inner savage instincts. Golding’s allegory is further developed by his description of the boys’ descent into savagery symbolized by the deaths of the pig and Piggy. Golding shows Roger’s descent into savagery when Roger, excited and blood thirsty, begins a brutal attack on the pig. He plunged his spear into the pig and â€Å"began to push down with all his weight. The spear moved forward inch by inch and the terrified squealing became a high pitched scream† (189). Roger’s sense of elation derived from killing the pig makes him want more blood. Roger delves deeper into savagery as he takes the life of a fellow human being. No longer killing just for survival, Roger finds satisfaction in the death of Piggy. â€Å"Roger, with a sense of delirious abandonment, leaned all his weight on the lever† (255). Crushing Piggy with the rock, Roger silences Piggy forever. With Piggy’s death, Roger has committed murder, the ultimate crime. Lord of the Flies is an allegorical novel in which Golding uses the symbols of the conch, Piggy’s glasses, the beast, Jack, and Roger to reveal his views that human nature is innately evil. Through the boys’ desire for civilization, their struggle against evil, and their descent into savagery, Golding portrays humankind as civilized only on the surface with evil lurking just beneath. As Piggy said â€Å"’What are we? Humans? Or animals? Or savages? ’† (122).

Strategic Importance Of Anticipated Hr Requirements Commerce Essay

Strategic Importance Of Anticipated Hr Requirements Commerce Essay HRP is the process by which an organization ensures that it has the right number and kinds of people, at the right places, at the right time and that these people are capable of performing their tasks effectively and efficiently. This helps the organization to achieve its overall objectives. Two major ways in which societal trends affect employment is through consumer markets, which affect the demand for goods and services, and labour markets, which affect the supply of people needed to produce goods and services. Maintaining a flexible workforce is the major challenge of the HR department and HRP helps it handle this challenge. HRP is done at different levels corporate, intermediate, and operations levels and for short-term activities. A proper human resource planning exercise should utilize the inputs of all the departments in the organization and enjoy the support of the top management. A human resource professional would be better equipped for human resource planning if he has a good understanding of the market dynamics, changes in the economy,organizational processes and technological developments. The process of HRP involves three key steps assessing and making an inventory of the current human resources, forecasting the organizations human resource needs and matching the demand and supply of human resources. Forecasting the overall human resource requirements involves studying the factors affecting the supply and estimating the increase or decrease in the external and internal supply of human resources. New hires, transfers-in, individuals returning from leave etc. increase the internal supply of human resources, while retirements, dismissals, transfers-out of the unit, lay-off, voluntary quits, sabbaticals, prolonged illness, and deaths reduce the supply. Part 1 Strategic importance or current, future anticipated HR Requirement Strategies concerns for hiring people at time of requirement and laying them off when they are not required. This strategy argument distinguish between personnel and the human resources. Human Resource Requirement is to control labour costs, looking for the talented labours or employees, making informed business decisions and assessing the future market risks. The important work of the HR people is too place right people for the right job at a right time and with the right price which an organization can afford because the employees are the main assets of the organization. H.R people plans that what the organization will need with his employees and those employees can meet the needs or the target of an organizations. The major problem now is faced by the H.R people is that this may create the gap between the organizations demand and the availability of the workforce supply, the organization is going to develop new strategies or approaches to close these gaps. Strategies as per the H.R Requirements Environment Scan Environment Scanning is a form of business intelligence. If the environment of the organization is in good, then it is easy for the new worker to mix up with the environment of the work, and it is going to help the organization that the employee or worker is giving his/her fullest working skills. Current Workforce Profile Current State is a profile of the demand and supply factors both internally and externally of the workforce the organization has today. Future Workforce View H.R people look towards the future organization that what all the requirements they need for the organization, what all the demand of the market, what sought of trend is going to be there, what will be the requirement of the employees at what price or the requirement of some other resources which may help to improve in the workforce in future and creates much better Working Environment of an organization. As well thinking about the Quantitative and Qualitative of the product and as well as for the employees.(It may be Internal or External demand and supply) Closing the Gaps The major work of the H.R people is to close gaps between the management and the employees, so that the easy flow of working can be there which will help to the organization for achieving its goals. H.R people work is to motivate the workers and employees at time of they needed, it can be in terms of money or as per the requirement of the employee or worker which an organization can easily provide while looking to the past performance of the employee. There are other things which an organization required to close those gaps, those are Resourcing, Learning and Development, Remuneration, Industrial Relations, Recruitment, Retention, Knowledge Management, Job design. HR Planning impacts on the Strategic Plan Integrating human resource management strategies and systems to achieve the overall mission, strategies, and success of the firm while meeting the needs of employees and stakeholders. (Source: Herman Schwind, Hari Das and Terry Wagar, Human Resource Management: A Strategic Approach) As per the HR plan for the Strategic Plans it may Positive or Negative too for an organizations, but we are going to discussed on the positive side of the impacts on the strategic plan. Strategy Development Develop strategies for workforce transition. -List specific goals to address workforce competency gaps or surpluses. -Changes in organizational structure -Succession planning -Retention programs -Recruitment plans -Career development programs -Leadership development -Organizational training and employee development. These are the developments which are going to impact on the organization with the help of HR planning in the strategic plan, these plans may be for the future or the current plans as per the requirements of the organization. Part 2 Human resources are the participants as also the beneficiaries of economic development process. In that, human resources figure on the demand as well as the supply side of production of goods and services in the economy. On the demand side, goods and services produced are used by the human beings to alleviate poverty, improve health, generate better living conditions, enhance general educational levels and provide better facilities for training. Utilisation of goods and services thus leads to an improvement of quality of human resources. On the supply side, human resources and capital form essential ingredients of production systems which transform natural and physical resources into goods and services. Complementarity between human resources and capital is so close that optimal increases in output and hence optimal economic growth is not possible through increases in one of them either human resources or capital at the cost of the other.Some growth of course can be had from the increase in more conventional capital even though the labour that is available is lacking both in skill and knowledge. But the rate of growth will be seriously limited. It simply is not possible to have the fruits of modern agriculture and the abundance of modern industry without making large investments in human beings . There is an optimal ratio of human resources to capital which has to be maintained to reach the attainable rate of economic growth. In this Unit we will take into account the two dimensions of human resources: Quantity and Quality in context of HRP in general and also in tourism. Quantitative and Qualitative on the basis of legal requirement of Human Resource Planning Human being is looked as productive power which is one of the part of the population of an economy and another one the human being those are without any productive power. Population Population of a country, in a generic sense, is taken as constituting the totality of all human beings of the country. The concept of population, viewed in this manner, appears to be very simple. However, in reality, the definitions used vary not only from country to country but even within a country depending on the purpose of enquiry. Broadly, the definitions of population used may be categorised into de facto and de ju re. Human resources being an integral part of population, the growth of human resources is depend on the growth of population. Population growth is measure by three factors: population structure, migration and population policies. Age Composition Age composition means dividing the population by age groups, usually five year age groups. At some point of time it shows the results of the past trends in mortality and in fertility. In the computation rate of growth of population, future births are usually computed by applying five year age specific fertility rates to the women of child bearing age (10 to 49 years) at the midpoint of each five-years time interval. It is useful in analysing and in computing of the labour supply. Normally the active age-group is being considered to be 15 to 65 years. Migration Another factor which causes changes in population is the net migration. If the net migration is positive, the population rise at a rate faster than the indicated by natural growth. If the net migration is negative then it causes decline in the rate of growth indicated by the natural growth. If population changes then it doesnt cause changes as such in the human resources. Rather than change in the economical active component of population which affects the growth in the human resources. In terms of economic activity classification, population may be divided into workers and non-workers. Workers are defined as a person who actively participate in the productive work by mentally or physically presence. It includes not only the actual work but also includes effective direction and supervision. The non workers is being categorised as : beggars, retired person, full-time students, infants and dependent doing no work, persons engaged in household duties, renters living on rent on an agricultural or non-agricultural royalty, vagrants and others with unspecified sources of income, inmates of penal, charitable and metal institutions, unemployed but available for work, and others. Labour force is that segment of population whose work is to produce goods and services demanded by the whole population they are known as economically active population also, Usually they are aged between 15-64 years. However, not everyone in the productive age-group is effectively in the labour force. According to the accepted definition, labour force comprises all persons of either sex who furnish the supply of labour available for the production of economic goods and services including:employers, employees, self-employed persons, and those engaged in family enterprises without pay. Education and Training Education and training is the most affective quality of the human resources in the terms of skills and knowledge. Educational labour demand is more than the uneducated labour in the market. Education and training serve both social and individuals ends. Education and Training affects on the culture and social for the up gradation of an individual. In other words training and education for the society means to take advantage of the technology which helps in the furthering technological progress. Depending on the methods of imparting knowledge and skills, education and training may be classified into two types: Formal and Informal. Formal education and training, which is imparted through schools and colleges, emphasises transfer of knowledge. Informal education and training such as on-the-job training and hereditary training lays stress on transfer of skills, i.e., practical application of knowledge. As far as development of education and training is concerned there are five choice areas which are critical: Choice between science and technology on the one hand, and on the other hand liberal and humanities. Choice between quality and quantity in education and training. Choice between level of education such as higher, secondary and primary education. Choice between market forces and incentives to attract people into some occupations. Choice between the aspirations of individuals and needs of the society. Health and Nutrition Health and nutrition status is one of the most important status for an human resource as significantly they contribute in building and maintaining a productive human ability as well as improving in the average expectation of life and a quality of life. There are three determinants of health status: Public sanitation, climate and availability of medical facilities. Peoples knowledge and understanding of health hygiene and nutrition. Education, health and nutrition are inter-linked and they complement each other in the process of human resources development. Equality of Opportunity Investments in human resources development do not always ensure proportionate development of all sections of population. In the absence of deliberate policy intervention, there are bound to be discriminations. We can say that there are three distinct forms of discriminations which are relevant to developing nations: Social discrimination may take either the form of sex discrimination or discrimination among different social groups or both. For example, a few years back the air hostesses of a particular airlines petitioned in the court because their retirement age was earlier than of their male counterparts. The court upheld their petition and now the retirement age of both male and female air hostesses is same. Economic discrimination takes place largely among groups of population belonging to different economic strata classified in terms of either income generating assets. Regional discrimination can be in the form of either discrimination between rural and urban population or discrimination among population belonging to different regions. These three forms of discriminations individually and/or jointly lead to inequality of opportunities of varying degree among different sections of population. Discrimination of any form causes differential access to education and training, and health and nutrition. This in turn leads to differences in quality and productivity of human resources belonging to different segments of the population with the privileged benefiting the most and under privileged being deprived of their due share in the development process. Opportunity costs of discrimination are very high, as it leads to many social and economic evils apart from retarding the pace of economic development. It has been demonstrated that the national output can be further expanded by improving the average level of productivity of each individual through appropriate social and economic policies directed towards equality to opportunity in the fields of education and health. Tourism has long been recognised as a tool for economic growth and development. However, it can be beneficial to the host economies when it creates jobs for the locals. Here qualitative dimensions of HRD become an important factor for education and training of local population as per the requirements of responsible tourism development. The dimensions, attributes and distribution of population the product of whose labour adds to national wealth constitute human resources. They are thus, the participants and beneficiaries of economic development. The demographic profile, migration and mobility and participation patterns in economic activity determine the quantitative aspects of actual and potential human resources. Investments in education and training, health and nutrition, and social welfare and quality promote quality of human resources through enhanced labour productivity. While quantitative and qualitative dimensions only regulate supply of human resources, the other aspect of human resources planning namely the demand for human resources crucially depends on the functioning and flexibility of labour markets. Labour market analysis is a principal instrument of human resources planning, as it helps identify skill shortages and also enables a diagnosis of market failure to match labour supply with demand. To facilitate labour market analysis, there is a need for a comprehensive and regularly updated labour market information system. The variables for determining the quantitative and qualitative dimension of human resource planning are: Quantitative Population policy, Population structure, Migration, and Labour force participation. Qualitative Education and training, Health and nutrition, and Equality of opportunity. These all are the points which directly or indirectly relates to the current legal requirements of the HR persons, which they had to consider while recruiting the people that what is going on in the market (in terms of population in there country, in terms of education and skills, health of the employee, age factors) Process for recruiting and selection of new staff The recruiting and selection of new staff is very sensitive because if HR people recruits any wrong person that can affect great loss to an organization and on the other hand if the recruitment is being done properly and HR people recruits right person for the right job then he/she will be useful or profitable for an organisation as well as the person who can achieve the targets of an organisation. Recruitment process can be done internally or externally that is online, telephonic, face to face interviews, exams related to the job profile. There are many ways for recruiting are as follows: Internal or External recruitment is being done. Successful Internal Recruitment. Referral Recruitment. Opening Job Position. HRM role at job interview. The attractive internal or external job poster. External Recruitment. ~ External Recruitment Success factors. ~ External Recruitment Channels. ~ Corporate website as a external recruitment job positioning tool. ~ External Recruitment Process Key Issues. ~ External Recruitment: Recruitment Agencies. ~ Setting KPIs for recruiting agencies. ~ Direct Search: The premiere external recruitment service. ~ Job Market Analysis. ~ Basic External Recruitment Measures. ~ Job website based external recruitment. ~ External Recruitment Competitive Advantage. General Recruitment ~ SWOT Analysis ~ Recruitment sources ~ Recruitment marketing ~ What is War for Talents? ~ Recruitment Strategy ~ Recruitment Strategy of differentiate ~ Recruitment Process Future ~ Recruitment Process Key Issues ~ Defining recruitment strategy ~ Best Performing Recruitment Source ~ Cost of the Recruitment Internal Recruitment ~ Internal Recruitment Benefits ~ Internal Recruitment Process Weaknesses ~ Internal versus External Job Candidates ~ Right Internal Recruitment Job Posting Job Resume ~ Quick selection of Job Resumes in Graduates Campaigns ~ Job Resume Components to Observe The Job Interview ~ HYPERLINK http://hrmadvice.com/hrmadvice/hr-processes/recruitment-and-selection/job-resume/job-resume-components-to-observe.htmlJob Interview Role ~ Job Interview Preparation ~ HRM Job Interview Questions Recruitment Process Design and Developments ~ What to find out before recruitment process design? ~ Designing Recruitment Process: Recruitment Measures ~ Simple Recruitment Process wins ~ Main Recruitment Process steps ~ Recruitment Analysis ~ Recruitment Process Outsourcing [(http://hrmadvice.com/hrmadvice/hr-processes/recruitment-and-selection.html) HRM Advice,  © 2008 HRM advice] Main steps for the recruitment process are as follows:- HYPERLINK http://hrmadvice.com/hrmadvice/hr-processes/recruitment-and-selection/job-resume/job-resume-components-to-observe.htmlJob Design Opening Job position. Collecting job resumes. Pre-selection of job resumes Job Interviews Job Offer [(http://hrmadvice.com/hrmadvice/hr-processes/recruitment-and-selection/recruitment-process-design-and-development/main-recruitment-process-steps.html) HRM Advice,  © 2008 HRM advice ] Part 3 The effects of the organisation environment on staff The organisation environment is being created by the organisation members itself therefore, the organisation environment effects on the staff and labour too, this includes in the internal environment of the organisation. If any of the staff is not working properly in any of the department then, it creates bad environment in the organisation, if that particular person is been not checked by his/her seniors, then while looking that particular person others also became lazy which is not good for an organisation, it may lead to the failure to achieve the goals and targets of an organisation. As some one had rightly said that, in bunch of apple if any of the apple is spoiled and it has been not throne then it spoils the whole bunch. The organisation environment effects the staff to do not achieve the organisation goals when the organisation is not providing the affective raw material to work out like the machinery, the area where the employees are going to work out, raw material are not available at the time of requirement, these all are the hindrance while achieving any goal of an organisation. There are many ways which effects the organisation environment are as follows: Person and Knowledge People those are working in an organization they should be correct skilled or knowledge people for the correct work, the age of the people affects the outcome of the work and in an department the mix people should be included as the experience people with the new people. Materials and Tools The quality and quantity of the input materials must be provided to an employees to easily work without wasting time on the collecting of materials e.g. pencil, scale, providing of the internet. The tools can be used for the labour people that the tools must working under the good condition if any requirement is there that should be told earlier to labour supervisor. Equipments The equipments must be up to the date and fit for the purpose. e.g. Assignment is being given the faculty and in the college no books are available for an particular assignment if it is available then the books are not in good condition to read out and understand it, therefore it is difficult to prepare a good and effective assignment, which leads to fail to achieve a goal. Employees motivation is also affects to an organisation, if the employees were not motivated properly at time of the motivation then it may lead to the failure of an organisation to achieve goals which affects to the environment of an organisation which affects to the other departments and at the end the environment affects on the productivity of an organisation which fails the whole process of an organisation. The Work life balance issue and the changing pattern of work practices 1) Meet needs of expansion / downsizing programmes. 2) Nature of present workforce in relation with Changing Environment helps to cope with changes in competitive forces, markets, technology, products and government regulations. 3) Cater to Future Personnel Needs. 4) Each Organisation needs personnel with necessary qualifications, skills, knowledge, experience aptitude. 5) Meet manpower shortages due to labour turnover. 6) Need for Replacement of Personnel -Replacing old, retired or disabled personnel. Shift in demand from ERP to internet programming has increased internet programmers assess staffing levels to avoid unnecessary costs. reduce delays in procuring staff. prevent shortage / excess of staff quantify job for producing product / service. comply with legal requirements determine future staff-mix quantify people positions required In organisational development, succession planning is the process of identifying and preparing suitable employees, through mentor, training and job rotation, to replace key personnel within an organisation if they leave. All employers need to consider the issue of succession planning to ensure that no part of the business is at risk should a particular member of staff leave the organisation. With good succession planning, employees are ready for new leadership roles as the need arises. Moreover, when someone leaves, a current employee is ready to step up to the plate. In addition, succession planning can help develop a diverse workforce, allowing decision makers to look at the future make-up of the organisation as a whole. Develop a succession plan for internal replacements, and if you will need to hire, think about the type of person or skills you will need so that if the situation arises you have already done some of the groundwork. In your succession plan you may wish to consider: staff interchange where employees swap jobs within the organisation in order to have experience in multiple positions; formal or informal mentor arrangements; coaching of staff; identification of suitable professional development activities for high-performing staff; making agreements to introduce flexible working arrangements; creating forward-thinking internal promotion policies; supporting staff to take increased responsibility; the allocation of higher-grade duties or assignments. Part 4 Process Steps There are four main grievance process steps: discovery, conciliation, internal review and arbitration. Discovery It means the date when the member raised any grievance against the any member or his/her senior, or it may be reasonably discovered, that particular circumstance leads to the grievance. Conciliation In this the grievance between faculty member and the board sitting in the lowest administrative is being tried to resolved as soon as possible, this is the informal effort before filing for the formal grievance. This is being assisted by a FA-appointed campus conciliator. Internal Review Hearing A informal meeting is being called by president, or the presidents designee. The president listens to the grievance, the responding administrator and their representatives as they address the allegations contained in a timely Notice of Grievance that has been filed with the District. The president writes an Internal Review Hearing decision regarding the Notice of Grievance allegations. Arbitration Hearing Before the formal hearing the arbitrator choose seven candidates from the list those are supplied by the State Conciliation Service. Both parties and all testimony as witnesses is under oath by Legal counsel. After reviewing evidence, testimony and argument briefs from both parties, the arbitrator renders a written decision that is binding on both parties. Discipline issues that result in dismissals Disciplinary and grievance procedures provide a clear and transparent framework to deal with difficulties which may arise as part of their working relationship from either the employers or employees perspective. Informal oral warning is given to the minor and not part of the formal disciplinary procedure. Formal oral warning Written warning or sometimes second time written warning. Final written warning Dismissal While given the previous warning there is effect and misconduct continues then we should move on to the next stages of the procedure. If misconduct is serious but falls short of the misconduct, then other options are transfer the worker to another job non payment of bonuses demotion Dismissal When the severest problem occurs then the dismissal is required. While giving warning it should be clear that the repetition of misconduct will be the dismissal. The dismissal can be done without giving any notice at time of the gross misconduct by the any person or pay in lieu of notice but we must try to follow the procedure. We can suspend a worker on a full pay but the investigation is being carried out. In employment contract the allowing provision of suspension is an good idea. The suspension should be made on the proper and reasonable cause and it should be used at the time of extreme and it shows that before we had consider the alternative procedure of transfer.(http://www.is4profit.com/business-advice/employment/handling-grievance-and-discipline-procedures/types-of-disciplinary-action.html , is4profit, copyright ©2000-2010 is4profit) The role of the Acas Code of Practice The Acas Code of Practice Disciplinary and Grievance Procedures was revised to reflect the removal of the statutory procedures and a new version came into force on 6 April 2009. CIPD endorses the Code. Following it is crucially important for employers: an employment tribunal will consider whether the employer has followed the Code and, if they have not, then the tribunal may adjust any awards made by up to 25% for unreasonable failure to comply. In situations where the trigger event occurs on or after 6 April 2009, an employment tribunal will consider whether the employer has followed the Acas Code and, if they have not, then the tribunal may adjust any awards made by up to 25% for unreasonable failure to comply. CIPD members can find out more on the content of the Code, the legal aspects of this topic and likely future developments from our FAQ on Discipline and grievances procedures in the Employment Law at Work area of our website. Disciplinary policy and practice Using the disciplinary process There are two main areas where a disciplinary system may be used: capability/performance and conduct. Capability/performance It happens that the performance of the employee is not up to the mark in the work place, at that time also the employer faces many difficulties and at that time employer can take some harsh steps against the employee. Many employers will have a specific capability procedure to deal with such matters and it is good that the employers deals with this issue without addressing formally, and when it arise, and the informal options are being exhausted and there is no alternative of it then the managers enter to the formal disciplinary or capability procedure. Situations where an individual is unable to do their job because of ill-health may also fall into this category. In these instances an employee should be dealt with sympathetically and offered suppor

bless me, ultima :: essays research papers

Chapter 3 Summary When Antonio awakes, he ponders the fate of Lupito's soul and those of the men who killed him. His parents quarrel as they always do on Sunday mornings, as Gabriel's vaquero mindset is not favorable to priests. When Marà ­a scolds Antonio for not being properly formal when greeting Ultima, Ultima requests that she back off because the night was hard on all men. Marà ­a protests that he is still a baby. She thinks it is a sin for boys to become men. Many women in town are dressed in mourning because of sons and husbands lost in the war, which has indirectly claimed two more victims. Antonio and Ultima discuss the events of the previous night. She states that she doesn't think Gabriel fired at Lupito, but she warns that no one should presume to decide whom God forgives or not. Before mass, Antonio mingles with the other boys. They horse around and discuss the night's events. Antonio contributes nothing to the subject of Lupito's death. Commentary Having been introduced to an adult moral dilemma, Antonio is obsessed with sin and punishment. Ultima explains that men of the llano, referring to Gabriel and Narciso, will not kill without reason. However, she also tells Antonio that people have to make independent moral decisions based on what they know. However, matters of salvation and damnation are not for human beings to determine. In her own way, Ultima is talking about fate and destiny within the language of Catholicism because those are the terms with which Antonio is trying to make sense of Lupito's death. Moreover, Ultima tries to subtly let Antonio know that the adults he loves and trusts are not infallible. Narciso and Gabriel both tried to save Lupito, but the blind anger and fear of Chà ¡vez and the others prevented them from doing so. Furthermore, Ultima does not tell Antonio what to think but how people like his father and Narciso make moral decisions. Antonio can then apply this understanding to his own decisions. The opinions that Marà ­a and Gabriel have of growing up highlight the major issues of sin and punishment that preoccupy Antonio. His mother associates growing up with learning how to sin, while Gabriel and Ultima view growing up as an inevitable process that is not good or bad in itself. As a boy becomes a man, he uses his life experience and his knowledge to make decisions.

Mary Shelley :: essays research papers

Mary Shelley: Bride of Frankenstein Authors have written horror novels with old props of haunted castles and moonlit dagger scenes for ages. However, there is one author deserving of significant commemorations for her horrific novel, Frankenstein. Mary Shelley, author of the most notable gothic novel of all times, inspires authors who read her work. Mary Shelley’s professional life as her husband’s editor, a novelist, and a poet began in 1816, in Scotland when she began her first novel. First of all, while Mary Shelley visited her family in England, Shelley became an acquaintance to the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, and later became his wife (Walling 9) and full time editor. As Percy Shelley’s reviser, she promoted the understanding of his works, which led to the history of biographical-literary criticism (Spark ix). Shelley traveled frequently, once to Italy in 1818, where she composed Italian Lives, which appeared in Lardner’s Cabinet Cyclopedia (Walling 10). Shelley’s marriage persisted for eight years (Spark ix), which ended on July 8, 1822 when Percy Shelley drown (Walling 10), and left her a single mother of a child, and a son on the way (Spark ix). Second, Mary Shelley achieved her highest acknowledgments for her writings and gothic novels. Shelley began her first novel Frankenstein (T hompson 2), at nineteen years of age in the summer of 1816 and publicized it on March 11, 1818 (Walling 9). The horror novel received numerous reviews and became one of the literary events of 1818 (Walling 34). Shelley wrote five other novels in her lifetime including The Last Man (Walling 72) and Valpera. The Last Man, published in 1826 (Walling 10), and Frankenstein are Shelley’s two most sought novels, and William Walling observes that they are "two novels whose loneliness is final Mensik 2 and irreparable" (86). Valperga, published in 1823, received reviews with modern critics that were not as highly ranked as the others. Shelley first began Valperga in 1817, however, she completed the novella in 1821, during which Shelley went through a marriage crisis with her husband Percy Shelley and mourned over the loss of two children (Walling 52). Walling observes that Shelley’s other novelettes were Matilda, completed in 1819, Perkin Warbeck, published in 1830, Lodore, published in 1835, and Falker, published in 1837. Society also granted fame to Mary Shelley for her intriguing poetry. In 1822, Shelley wrote her first poem, "The Choice". Shelley’s release of Shelley’s Prometheus Poems in 1824 sold more than three hundred copies (10).

History Of Islam Essay -- essays research papers fc

When Charles Martel defeated the Muslims in Spain and stopped their advance into greater Europe (Ahmed 67)0, he most likely did not know just how much of an effect his victory had on the history of not only Europe, but of the known world. The fact that Islam may have overtaken the rest of the world had it not been for that crucial battle attests to the strength of this relatively new religion. If the strength of the religion is dependent upon those who start it, then it is important to analyze the life of the one key character in history who began it all. That key character is Muhammad, the man that is known as the first and last true prophet of Islam. Muhammad, the great prophet and founder of Islam, was born in 570 AD, and was soon an orphan without parents. He was raised by a family of modest means and was forced to work to support himself at an early age. He worked with a travelling caravan as a driver and at the age of twenty-five, married his employer, a woman by the name of Khadija, by which he had four daughters and no sons. In Mecca, the Ka'ba had long been a pagan pilgrimage site. A black stone, which had fallen to the earth, was kept in the cube that also held 360 idols representing different gods and prophets, one for each degree of the earth. The environment in which Muhammad was raised was a polytheistic society that had a strong emphasis on religion but not religious purity. This clear lack of religious dedication upset Muhammad greatly, and he began to speak out against the practice of idolatry. By this time Muhammad had gained a large following. By the age of forty, Muhammad began to receive visits from the angel Gabriel, who recited God's word to him at irregular intervals. These recitations, known as the Qur'an, were compiled by Muhammad's followers around 650 or 651. The basic message Muhammad received was that of submission. The very word Islam means "surrender" or "submission". The submission is to the will of Allah, the one and only true God. Muslims are those who have submitted themselves. The basic theme of Islam is very simple and clear: There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah (Denny 67-70). Islam teaches that there is one God, the creator and sustainer of the universe. Muhammad taught his followers that this God, Allah, is compassionate and just. Further, he taught them that becaus... ...lly ignored by Christians for many years. The fact that these prophets had very little success was repeated in many of Muhammad's own experiences, while he preached the oneness of God to the Arabs in Mecca. The main point of his message was that he was the last in the series of prophets, the last person that would reveal the divine truth. Muhammad changed the religious world a great deal with a his only twenty-two years of leadership and service. He is considered the last and greatest prophet of God by more than a few Muslim believers, and it has been predicted that by the year 2000, one-fourth of the world's by then six billion people will call themselves Muslims (Braswell 207). Works Cited Ahmed, Akbar S. From Samarkand to Stornoway Living Islam. Great Britain: BBC Books, 1994 Braswell, George W., Jr, Islam: Its Prophet, Peoples, Politics and Power. United States of America: Broadman & Holman, 1996 Denny, Frederick Mathewson. An Introduction to Islam. New Jersey: Macmillan, 1985 Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998 Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. Islam Tradition and Politics Human Rights. Colorado: Westview Press, 1995 History Of Islam Essay -- essays research papers fc When Charles Martel defeated the Muslims in Spain and stopped their advance into greater Europe (Ahmed 67)0, he most likely did not know just how much of an effect his victory had on the history of not only Europe, but of the known world. The fact that Islam may have overtaken the rest of the world had it not been for that crucial battle attests to the strength of this relatively new religion. If the strength of the religion is dependent upon those who start it, then it is important to analyze the life of the one key character in history who began it all. That key character is Muhammad, the man that is known as the first and last true prophet of Islam. Muhammad, the great prophet and founder of Islam, was born in 570 AD, and was soon an orphan without parents. He was raised by a family of modest means and was forced to work to support himself at an early age. He worked with a travelling caravan as a driver and at the age of twenty-five, married his employer, a woman by the name of Khadija, by which he had four daughters and no sons. In Mecca, the Ka'ba had long been a pagan pilgrimage site. A black stone, which had fallen to the earth, was kept in the cube that also held 360 idols representing different gods and prophets, one for each degree of the earth. The environment in which Muhammad was raised was a polytheistic society that had a strong emphasis on religion but not religious purity. This clear lack of religious dedication upset Muhammad greatly, and he began to speak out against the practice of idolatry. By this time Muhammad had gained a large following. By the age of forty, Muhammad began to receive visits from the angel Gabriel, who recited God's word to him at irregular intervals. These recitations, known as the Qur'an, were compiled by Muhammad's followers around 650 or 651. The basic message Muhammad received was that of submission. The very word Islam means "surrender" or "submission". The submission is to the will of Allah, the one and only true God. Muslims are those who have submitted themselves. The basic theme of Islam is very simple and clear: There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the Prophet of Allah (Denny 67-70). Islam teaches that there is one God, the creator and sustainer of the universe. Muhammad taught his followers that this God, Allah, is compassionate and just. Further, he taught them that becaus... ...lly ignored by Christians for many years. The fact that these prophets had very little success was repeated in many of Muhammad's own experiences, while he preached the oneness of God to the Arabs in Mecca. The main point of his message was that he was the last in the series of prophets, the last person that would reveal the divine truth. Muhammad changed the religious world a great deal with a his only twenty-two years of leadership and service. He is considered the last and greatest prophet of God by more than a few Muslim believers, and it has been predicted that by the year 2000, one-fourth of the world's by then six billion people will call themselves Muslims (Braswell 207). Works Cited Ahmed, Akbar S. From Samarkand to Stornoway Living Islam. Great Britain: BBC Books, 1994 Braswell, George W., Jr, Islam: Its Prophet, Peoples, Politics and Power. United States of America: Broadman & Holman, 1996 Denny, Frederick Mathewson. An Introduction to Islam. New Jersey: Macmillan, 1985 Esposito, John L. Islam: The Straight Path. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998 Mayer, Ann Elizabeth. Islam Tradition and Politics Human Rights. Colorado: Westview Press, 1995

What is Drug?

A drug is any animal, vegetable, or mineral substance used in the composition of medicines. It also refers to any stuff used in dyeing or in chemical operations. It is a substance that is used as a medicine or narcotic. A drug is capable of altering natural biological processes, with their manipulating nature used in medicine as a corrective measure against deviances from these normal biological processes. As described in the Webster Dictionary (1992), a drug, is a substance, other than food intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or other animals.It is any narcotic; also any substance or chemical agent, exclusive of food, employed for other than medical reasons to obtain a given physiological effect or to satisfy a craving. The drug affects the mind or body. The effect depends on the type of drug, the amount taken, when and how it is used, and the person who takes it (Webster, 1992). Drugs may be classified as uppers, downers, narcotics, mind-affecting (hallucinogens), or volatile chemicals. Uppers are stimulants that affect the nervous system to excite the user.Downers are depressants that affect the central nervous system to relax the user. Narcotics affect the nervous system, and change many of the normal activities of the body, and often produce an intense state of excitement or distortion of the user’s senses. Volatile chemicals are depressants acting upon the central nervous system. It is important for the first aider to be able to detect possible drug abuse at the overdose level and to relate certain signs to certain types of drugs (Webster, 1992 p. FA-28). There are four levels of drug use.Abstinence means not taking any drugs or any particular drug. Experimentation means trying a drug for the first time. It could be a doctor prescribing medicine, or a young person sniffing glue. If a user likes the effects of a drug, he or she may move to casual, recreational or regular use. Casual use is taking a drug only when a person feels like it or when a it is offered. Recreational use is a drug use for enjoyment in social situations. Regular use means taking drugs almost everyday. Habitual or problem drug becomes dependent (needs to have some of the drug everyday).The user may have very little control over his or her problem drug use. The effects of this dependence can be serious, and sometimes fatal. With certain drugs, the user can develop a tolerance, or get used to the drug. He or she has to take very large amounts to feel the same effects. These drugs include alcohol, opiates, LSD, caffeine, amphetamines and tranquilisers. Psychological dependence can develop with any type of drug. The user believes that he or she will not be able to lead a normal life without taking the drug and becomes very upset if it is not available.Physical dependence, when the body cannot work without a regular supply of the drug may happen with long term use. This is common with depressants and a nalgesics. Depressants slow the nervous system and relax the body. Alcohol is the most common, but other legal depressants are abused for these effects. These include barbiturates (sleeping pills), tranquilisers and solvents (glue and gases). Analgesics reduce the user’s reaction to pain, discomfort and anxiety. Opium, heroin and codeine are obtained from opium poppies.Methadone and pethidine are synthetic (chemical rather than natural) analgesics. Many analgesics have medical uses. Withdrawal symptoms, which make the user feel unwell, can happen when a regular user stops taking a drug. When a person has an overdose, he or she takes more of the drug than the body can cope with, becomes very ill and may even die (Brown and King 1990). Mechanisms of Drug Action To describe the mechanism of drug action in the brain, whenever a person uses a drug and the effect it produces is somehow pleasant, this effect gets a rewarding quality for that person.As experimental research by behavi oural psychologists has demonstrated, all behaviours that are reinforced by a reward have a tendency to be repeated and learned. Successive repetitions, besides fixing the reward-producing behaviours, also fix all previously indifferent stimuli, sensations, and situations, eventually associated with those behaviours. Seeing particular places or persons, hearing specific music, etc, for instance, triggers in drug users the craving for their preferred drug. Using Positron Emission Tomography (PET), Dr.Edythe D. London and her colleagues at the Addiction Research Centre, in Baltimore, obtained images showing that in cocaine-users, cues associated with the use of the drug sparked an increase in the metabolism of glucose in brain areas that are associated with memory and learning (lateral pre-frontal cortex, amygdala, and cerebellum). Up to now, is far from complete our knowledge about the cerebral, chemical and structural changes that underlie reward and act as reinforcers for different behaviours, including that of drug use.Nevertheless, recent researches point to a chain of reactions, involving several neurotransmitters, leading to the release of the neurotransmitter dopamine in a brain region. Compare and contrast the Physical Dependence and Positive Incentive theories of drug addiction. Drug addiction has two components: physical dependency, and psychological dependency. Physical dependency occurs when a drug has been used habitually and the body has become accustomed to its effects. The person must then continue to use the drug in order to feel normal, or its absence will trigger the symptoms of withdrawal.Psychological dependency occurs when a drug has been used habitually and the mind has become emotionally reliant of its effects, either to elicit pleasure or relieve pain, and does not feel capable of functioning without it. Its absence produces intense cravings, which are often brought on or magnified by stress. A dependent person may have either aspects o f dependency, but often has both. â€Å"Chipping† is also a term used to describe a pattern of drug use in which the user is not physically dependent and sustains ‘controlled use' of a drug.This is done by avoiding influences that reinforce dependence, such that the drug is used for relaxation and not for escape. Physical Dependency Model After repeated exposure to certain drugs, withdrawal symptoms appear if the drug is discontinued. Withdrawal symptoms are compensatory reactions that oppose the primary effects of the drug. Therefore they are the opposite of the effects of the drug. Withdrawal effects are unpleasant and reduction in these effects would therefore constitute negative reinforcement.[Negative reinforcement is the reinforcement of behaviour that terminates an aversive stimulus] Negative reinforcement could explain why addicts continue to take the drug. However some addicts will endure withdrawal symptoms (go ‘cold-turkey') in order to reduce their tol erance so that they can recommence drug intake at a lower dose which costs less to purchase. Concentrating on the role of physical withdrawal effects at the expense of other psychological factors led to the failure to recognize the addictive properties of cocaine.Cocaine does not produce physical dependency (tolerance and withdrawal symptoms) but it is more addictive than heroin. This diagram (redrawn from Julien, 1995), shows the changing pattern in the major drug used by patients admitted to drug treatment programs in New York City during the 1980s. It is also important to emphasize that reduction in withdrawal symptoms does not explain why people take drugs in the first place. Negative reinforcement may account for initial drug taking in some situations. For example, someone who is suffering from unpleasant emotions may experience a reduction in these feelings (i.e. negative reinforcement) following drug administration. However the most likely reason for drug taking involves posi tive reinforcement. Positive Reinforcement Model The reinforcing properties of a drug are thought to be reason why most people become addicted to drugs. Addictive drugs are positive reinforcers (Carlson, 2001). As you know positive reinforcement can lead to learning a new response, and the maintenance of existing behaviours. It follows that the behaviours associated with taking an addictive drug (i. e. injecting or smoking it) will increase in probability.One way of testing this claim is to examine the reinforcing properties of drugs in animals. We already know that conventional reinforcers support bar-pressing in animals, therefore if a drug maintains a response such as bar-pressing in an animal, it is a reinforcing stimulus. At one time it was believed that animals could not be made addicted to drugs, but that view is now rejected because technical developments have shown that animals will learn new behaviours that cause injection of drugs into their body. Explain how the study of reward circuits has provided a potential explanation of drug addiction.The study of reward circuits has provided a potential explanation of drug addiction. The reinforcing effects of drugs during intoxication create an environment that, if perpetuated, triggers the neuronal adaptations that result in addiction. Imaging studies in drug abusers as well as non–drug abusers have shown that drugs of abuse increase the extra-cellular concentration of drug addiction in the striatum and that these increases were associated with their reinforcing effects. The subjects who had the greatest increases in drug addiction were the ones who experienced drug effects such as â€Å"high,† â€Å"rush,† or â€Å"euphoria† most intensely.These studies also showed that the reinforcing effects appeared to be associated not only with the magnitude but also with the abruptness of the drug addiction increase. Thus, for an equivalent increase in drug addiction, the drug was experie nced as reinforcing when it was injected intravenously, which leads to fast drug uptake in the brain and presumably very fast changes in drug addiction concentration, but not when it was given orally, which leads to a slow rate of brain uptake and presumably slow increases in drug addiction concentration.The dependency of the reinforcing effects of drugs on fast and large increases in drug addiction concentration is reminiscent of the changes in drug addiction concentration induced by phasic drug addiction cell firing (fast-burst firing > 30 Hz), which also leads to fast changes in drug addiction concentration and whose function is to highlight the saliency of stimuli. This contrasts with tonic drug addiction cell firing (slow firing at frequencies around 5 Hz), which maintains base-line steady-state drug addiction levels and whose function is to set the overall responsiveness of the drug addiction system.This led us to speculate that the ability of drugs of abuse to induce changes in drug addiction concentration that mimic but exceed those produced by phasic drug addiction cell firing results in over-activation of the neuronal processes that highlight saliency, and that this is one of the relevant variables underlying their high reinforcing value. However, studies show that increases in drug addiction concentration during intoxication occur in both addicted and non-addicted subjects, so this by itself cannot explain the process of addiction.Since drug addiction requires chronic drug administration, we suggest that addiction results from the repeated perturbation of reward circuits (marked drug addiction increases followed by drug addiction decreases) and the consequent disruption of the circuits that it regulates (motivation/drive, memory/learning, and control). Indeed, imaging studies in drug-addicted subjects have consistently shown long-lasting decreases in the numbers of drug addiction D2 receptors in drug abusers compared with controls.In addition, studi es have shown that cocaine abusers also have decreased drug addiction cell activity, as evidenced by reduced drug addiction release in response to a pharmacological challenge with a stimulant drug. We postulate that the decrease in the number of drug addiction D2 receptors, coupled with the decrease in drug addiction cell activity, in the drug abusers would result in a decreased sensitivity of reward circuits to stimulation by natural reinforcers.This decreased sensitivity would lead to decreased interest in ordinary (day-to-day) environmental stimuli, possibly predisposing subjects for seeking drug stimulation as a means to temporarily activate these reward circuits. Imaging studies provide evidence of disrupted sensitivity to natural reinforcers in addiction. For example, in a study by Martin-Solch and colleagues, the meso-striatal and meso-corticolimbic circuits of opiate addicts were not activated in response to natural reinforcers, whereas they were in controls subjects.Similar ly, in a second study by the same group, DA-regulated reward centres in tobacco smokers failed to activate in response to monetary reward. Interestingly, decreased sensitivity of reward circuits to acute alcohol administration has also been documented in cocaine abusers compared with control subjects. These findings suggest an overall reduction in the sensitivity of reward circuits in drug-addicted individuals to natural reinforcers, but also possibly to drugs besides the one to which they are addicted (extracted from the Journal of Clinical Investment May 15, 2003).